Through the discussion in the preceding articles, Vygotsky has shown us how the use of language (signs) enables human beings to actively control their own memory, attention, and thinking. Our behavior thereby transcends instinctive reaction and is no longer merely passive "conditioned reflex"; it forms the "higher psychological functions" unique to humans and gives rise to free will. Because of language, human civilization in all its forms has been constructed, whether in the establishment of academic achievements or in the creation of works of art. Just as people devise tools to transform the natural world, they create sign systems that serve as instruments for reshaping their own psychological structure. That is, humans invent "tools" to solve problems of physical labor, and invent "signs" to solve psychological problems. Both are "auxiliary means" that humans create for themselves in order to attain their goals.
The philosopher Hegel regarded the creation of "mediating activity" as a defining characteristic of human reason: "Reason is both powerful and cunning, and its cunning lies in the fact that, to a great extent, it can accomplish its ultimate purpose without coming into direct contact with its object." For example, people need only make use of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of matter, allowing these to act upon one another, in order to satisfy their various needs, without relying on direct human intervention. The modern political and economic order manifests this "mediating" character of human behavior with great vividness: a government can rule through laws and policies, and the delivery chains of commerce usually do not face consumers directly.
The rich socio-historical activities that humans have established through signs are, in essence, an internal reconstruction of external operations, one that humans achieve and continually refine. In other words, the human mind "internalizes" "history and culture." This evolutionary process of "internalization" is most evident in the individual, and it unfolds along two dimensions:
1. "Internalizing" external actions
Through the "internalization" of external actions, human interaction passes from purely instinctive reaction to a stage of symbolic interaction based on "shared meaning." For example, an infant at first can only attempt to satisfy his needs directly through instinctive actions such as "grasping" and "reaching toward." Gradually, however, he comes to realize that although a particular "action" usually cannot satisfy his needs directly, it elicits a specific response from adults. He begins to understand that his "action" can be "read" and possesses communicative force; that is, the meaning of this action can be shared between himself and others. At this point he has achieved the "internalization" of this action. I have clearly observed this phenomenon in actual life. For instance, a 13-month-old child would each time use a "grasping" action to express the need "I want milk and then sleep," letting the caregiver know that "I am very sleepy now." His feeding bottle happened to have two handles for grasping, and when this action first appeared, it was entirely an instinctive movement. But since the adult's response was always the same and helped him achieve his purpose, the psychological structure underlying his performance of this action had by then already changed, because "shared meaning" had been created in the process, even though what we observe is that he keeps repeating the same action. Similarly, at the initial stage, a child performing addition must count actual objects; but once the child has internalized the action of "counting," he can carry out the operation directly in his head.
2. "Internalizing" social interaction between people
Vygotsky held that the development of children's psychological functions is profoundly shaped by the sociocultural environment. For example, children at first find it difficult to control their behavior in public places, whereas in adulthood we are able to display the behavior that society expects of us. The reason for this change is that our higher psychological functions, such as logical thinking, self-discipline, and moral sense, initially exist within our relationships with others. It is a kind of "external speech" that teaches us how to behave ourselves, and only afterward is it internalized as a psychological function independently possessed by the individual, forming "inner speech" that guides us in making independent judgments and choices. For example, we learn to control our emotions within the parent-child relationship, and later, even when our parents are not at our side, we possess the capacity to regulate our own emotions. This also explains why unhealthy modes of parenting have an enormous impact on children's development, and why family socioeconomic background affects children's development. The process of moving from a natural being to a "historical-cultural being" is the process of "internalizing" social interaction.
Even in adulthood, "internalization" continues in various forms, for instance when we come to live in a new country, enter a new industry, or associate with people from different economic and cultural backgrounds. Before "internalization" is truly achieved, there is often a long period of "external activity." Moreover, some forms of "internalization" always require "external activity": one can think and explore only through actual behavior, so that action and thought proceed simultaneously. Take the reading and writing in which I am now engaged: I can achieve my purpose only by constantly reading new books and "writing things down," and not by accomplishing it all within my mind. Setting up a business is the same. We cannot reach our goals on the strength of an idea in the mind alone; we need various external activities to assist us in continually thinking and solving problems, and every time we meet a challenge with the aid of external signs, it is a transformation of our internal mental system. Once we have completed a certain internalization, we can carry out thinking in the head, detached from action. For example, when you have accumulated rich experience through doing something, you no longer need to do it in person in order to have your own experience and insights, and your experience becomes transferable and shareable. A writer, for instance, does not need to have personally lived through every plot element, yet can still create works of artistic power; likewise, an entrepreneur no longer needs to make every decision in person in order to lead an entire conpany.
Vygotsky's theory of learning therefore does not exist only within the school system, but applies broadly to learning and the development of psychological functions at any stage of life. We constantly encounter difficulties, but the external environment always contains "external conditions" as well. The process by which we continually solve problems is the process of turning "external environmental factors" into "internal psychological tools," and in solving problems we ultimately reshape our own psychological structure. Psychological structure is not innate; it is "constructed" by the individual through interaction with the external sociocultural environment (especially through the use of signs and tools).